In May 2025, the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) released a Science & Tech Spotlight report titled Universal Vaccines (GAO-25-108286), examining a promising new frontier in immunization strategy. The report outlines how universal vaccines—designed to protect against a wide range of virus strains—could “provide long-lasting, broad protection against specific viruses and reduce the impact of outbreaks.” But the GAO also makes clear that turning this scientific potential into a public health reality faces significant scientific, logistical, and economic hurdles.
From Annual Shots to Durable Immunity
Traditional vaccines, such as those for influenza or SARS-CoV-2, typically target specific viral strains. Because these pathogens mutate rapidly, vaccines often require regular updates and annual administration to remain effective. In contrast, universal vaccines aim to train the immune system to recognize more stable viral components—those that do not change significantly across strains—potentially offering broader and more durable protection.
According to the GAO report, “universal vaccines are designed to train the immune system to recognize and target virus structures that are consistent across many or all strains of a given virus.” For influenza, this might mean targeting the conserved stalk portion of the hemagglutinin protein, a structure that changes far less than the virus’s variable head region.
Early Trials, Long Timelines
Progress is underway. Between 2015 and early 2025, eight early-phase clinical trials of universal vaccines have been initiated or completed, mostly targeting influenza. The Department of Health and Human Services and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) recently announced a “next-generation, universal vaccine platform,” (although it should be noted this new effort is being widely criticized for an outdated technical approach), with flu vaccine trials planned by NIH to begin in 2026. Other efforts include exploring universal approaches for mosquito-borne illnesses and coronaviruses.
Yet none of these candidates has reached the market. The GAO notes that it “may take years for trials to yield a successful candidate and for the Food and Drug Administration to license a universal vaccine to be marketed in the U.S.” The complexity of targeting conserved viral structures, combined with rigorous safety and efficacy requirements, means that universal vaccines are still in the early stages of the product pipeline.
The Economic Equation: High Risk, Low Return?
Scientific barriers are only part of the challenge. The GAO report draws attention to a central economic dilemma: universal vaccines may be less attractive to commercial developers because they would be used less frequently than seasonal vaccines. Despite their potential to reduce outbreaks and improve health outcomes, “developing vaccines is a risky economic venture,” the report states, “typically costing billions of dollars and years of research, with a high failure rate.”
This dynamic creates a misalignment between public health value and commercial incentive. Fewer doses over time may reduce recurring revenue, making universal vaccines a harder sell for industry investors—especially in a system where vaccine profitability can drive prioritization. Without a more robust public-private investment model, promising candidates could stall in development or fail to achieve widespread distribution.
Opportunities for Public Health
The long-term benefits of universal vaccines could be substantial. As the COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated, the cost of inaction—measured in lives lost, economic disruption, and strain on health systems—can be devastating. Universal vaccines could help mitigate future crises by reducing the burden of viral mutation, limiting the need for emergency response measures, and improving vaccine equity.
Indirect economic benefits are also significant. As the GAO notes, “vaccines can help prevent or contain outbreaks of existing and future virus strands, resulting in economic and societal benefits.” The prevention of even a single large-scale outbreak could justify years of investment.
Moving Forward: What Policymakers Should Consider
The GAO report raises several important policy questions:
- What frameworks can help evaluate the comparative cost-effectiveness of universal vaccines versus traditional vaccines?
- Should funding be prioritized for viruses with the highest pandemic potential?
- How can government support and de-risk investment in universal vaccine R&D?
These questions underscore the need for continued federal leadership and coordination across sectors. The successes of Operation Warp Speed and other pandemic-era initiatives demonstrate what is possible when science, funding, and urgency align.
Sources and Further Reading
- U.S. GAO: Universal vaccines (GAO-25-108286)
- U.S. GAO: Vaccine development: capabilities and challenges for addressing infectious diseases (GAO-22-104371)
- NIH: Progress toward universal vaccines
- Vaccine: A review of next-generation influenza candidates and their potential for global health impact
- Frontiers in Immunology: Development of an intranasal, universal influenza vaccine in an EU-funded public-private partnership